Black Music Aesthetics in General Music Part 1

Exploring Black Musics

By NAfME Member Loneka Wilkinson Battiste

This article was originally published in the October 2024 issue of Journal of General Music Education.

Abstract: Black Music Aesthetics (BMA), guided by conceptual approaches grounded in African belief systems, are found in the structure and performance practices of Black musics. Music education in American society leans strongly toward Western European aesthetics, which includes: the centrality of rhythm, pitch, and harmony to musical understanding; a reliance on written notation for preserving and sharing musical ideas; and a primary focus on sounds. While Black music and musicality can be explored using Western European aesthetics, they cannot be thoroughly explored in this way. In this series of articles, I draw on the work of ethnomusicologists to define BMA and provide concrete examples for incorporating them in general music. The first article in this series provides a historical foundation and definition for BMA and offers examples of how it can be centered in the study of Black musics.

Introduction

Black Music Aesthetics (BMA), guided by conceptual approaches grounded in African belief systems, are found in the structure and performance practices of Black musics and can be grouped into three large categories: sound quality or timbre, mechanics of delivery, and style of delivery (Maultsby, 2014). Music education in American society leans strongly toward Western European aesthetics, characterized by the following: the centrality of rhythm, pitch, and harmony to musical understanding (Kania, 2020); a reliance on written notation for preserving and sharing musical ideas; and a primary focus on sounds (Kania, 2017). Black musics and musicality, rooted in BMA, are rarely centered in elementary general music. While Black musics and musicality can be explored through Western European aesthetics, the study of Black musics and musicality is incomplete if BMA is not centered. In this series of articles, I draw on the work of ethnomusicologists to explore BMA and to provide examples for incorporating them in general music programs. The first article serves as a foundation for the series by explaining BMA and providing examples of how to foreground them in teaching Black musics. The second article addresses culturally relevant pedagogy through BMA using hand games and line dancing. The final article places BMA in an international context through Afro-Brazilian Music of the Brazilian northeast. These three articles work together to provide teachers with tools to reimagine musical experiences that foreground the structure and processes of Black musics.

Foundations of Music Education

The philosophy of Lowell Mason, widely considered the founder of music education, is still prominent in elementary general music instruction to this day. He carefully selected songs to “cultivate the powers, elevate the taste, improve the character, and cheer and animate the hearts of whole communities of children” (Woodbridge et al., 1831) and to support music instruction that would progress from rote-singing to performing through musical notation (Choksy, 2001). Because of his impactful work, Lowell Mason is still revered as one of the most influential musicians in American history (Mercer-Taylor, 2023). American music education now incorporates broader and more diverse communities than found in early 19th-century primary schools, yet the foundational influence of Lowell Mason in elementary general music education remains prevalent.

The most popular approaches to teaching general music in the United States are Dalcroze, Kodály, and Orff, which are all rooted in Western European musical goals. Responding to deficiencies in the musicianship of students at the Conservatory of Music in Geneva, Emile Jacques-Dalcroze experimented with ways to bring all the students’ senses together to perform better and interpret Western European art music. His approach uses movement, ear training, and improvisation (Choksy, 2001). The main objectives of Kodály musical training include reading and writing musical notation and learning to love and appreciate music by engaging with “masterworks” of “the great art music of the world” (Choksy, 2001, p. 83). The Orff Approach offers opportunities for engaging with music in broader ways. While Orff used movement along with speech and drama, being able to read and write music is still one of its ultimate aims (Choksy, 2001, p. 109). While there are noticeable differences among these three approaches, the centrality of rhythm, pitch, and harmony, the importance of written notation, and a primary focus on sounds are still apparent in each of them. Therefore, each can be said to foreground Western European aesthetics.

Carnival instruments

Photo: Lucashallel – iStock / Getty Images Plus Collection

The National Association for Music Education

Music teachers, whether influenced by any of the approaches mentioned above or not, likely have some association with the National Association for Music Education (NAfME). This organization, self-described as “the only association that addresses all aspects of music education” (National Association for Music Education, n.d.a), adopted a new set of national standards in 2014. Core Music Standards: A Guide to Orchestrating Success for Students, Schools, and Society (Core Music Standards, 2014) is a NAfME publication that gives the history and structure of the National Core Music Standards, outlines the standards in detail, and offers templates for developing knowledge, skills, and dispositions based on the Standards. In the document, the structure of knowledge in music is defined as “the organization of music, using knowledge of music theory and notation to identify how the elements of music (pitch, rhythm, harmony, dynamics, timbre, texture, form, and style/articulation) are used within a piece, including the difficulty or challenges of music being performed or created” (Core Music Standards, 2014, p. 21). The Model Cornerstone Assessments available on the NAfME website reflect the same ideological grounding (National Association for Music Education, n.d.c). A thorough analysis of all documents is beyond the scope of this article. However, the knowledge and skills outlined in them are rooted in this definition of knowledge and privilege Western European aesthetics.

For several decades, American music education has embraced culturally diverse repertoire through multicultural music education (Anderson, 1991; Baxter, 2007; Belz, 2006; Campbell, 1989, 2002; Damm, 2006; Edwards, 1998; Moore, 2010; Nethsinghe, 2012; Seeger, 1992), which has influenced music book series, methods books, music technology, and music instructional series. In this article, I invite you to consider Black musics as more than a series of musical concepts, but as a set of structural characteristics and musical processes that are guided by shared conceptual approaches to music making.

BMA Explained

There are similarities in the “feel” of gospel choirs, Historically Black College and University (HBCU) bands, New Orleans second line, West African drumming, hip hop, maracatu, and other musics of the African diaspora. I have carefully considered the term “BMA,” defined as structural characteristics and musical processes prevalent in Black musics (Maultsby, 2014), and the implications of its use. I use this term to honor the relationship between West African and Afro-diasporic musics that is “dynamic and unbroken at the conceptual level despite the differences in materials to which these concepts are applied” (Nketia, 1973, p. 8). According to Wilson (1974), these conceptual approaches include polymeter or syncopation, a percussive approach to performance, a wide range of musical events in a short amount of time, call and response, a high density of musical events in a short musical time frame, and the tendency to incorporate body movement. In a later work, he introduced the heterogeneous sound ideal, emphasizing the independence of timbre for each voice of an ensemble or the range of sounds produced within one voice (Wilson, 1992), as a common conceptual approach in African American musics. I use these conceptual approaches as a foundation for the current discussion.

Mellonee Burnim first identified three areas of aesthetic significance in Black gospel music: quality of sound, style of delivery, and mechanics of delivery (Burnim, 1985). Maultsby (2014) later asserted that these areas apply to African American secular music and other genres. I will briefly describe these areas of aesthetic significance, which incorporate structural characteristics and musical processes. The first is sound quality or timbre, which includes various timbres produced by one instrument or voice, a variety of contrasting but equally prominent timbres performed simultaneously in an ensemble, expansion of the sounds made by an instrument using various objects, and playing an instrument in a manner that imitates the human voice. The latter might include groans and shouts, percussive hand claps and stomps, and digital alterations (e.g., synthesizers and autotune). The second is the mechanics of delivery, namely call-response form, syncopation, polyrhythms, and a flexible relationship between time, text, and pitch (e.g., embellishments, melismas, repetition, and ritardandos). The last is body movement and participatory performance as salient features of the delivery style.

Based on the work of Nketia, Wilson, Burnim, and Maultsby, I believe sufficient evidence exists to propose a West African and Afro-diasporic aesthetic that is present, to some degree, in most Black musics (music of Black musicians or composed in a style that is rooted in Black forms of expression). This term encompasses both the organization of the music as well as the way it is experienced or performed and refers broadly to three aforementioned areas of aesthetic significance: sound quality or timbre, mechanics of delivery, and style of delivery (see Figure 1).

Areas of aesthetic significance in Black musics

Figure 1. Areas of aesthetic significance in Black musics.

NAfME Core Music Standards and BMA

As stated earlier in this article, NAfME Core Standards center Western European musicality as a foundation for musical knowledge. However, the philosophical foundations for the Standards are compatible with BMA and, therefore, can be adjusted to center them in the study of Black musics. They include the arts as communication; the arts as creative personal realization; the arts as culture, history, and connectors; the arts as a means to well-being; and the arts as community engagement (NAfME, 2014), which can all align with BMA.

Knowledge, skills, and dispositions in the National Core Music Standards are the “building blocks toward the overarching goal of music literacy.” I propose we embrace the idea of musical literacies (Abrahams, 2021), creating space for the multiple ways people hear and engage with musical texts (Broomhead, 2018) in American music education. If literacy in Western European “classical” music is defined by one’s ability to read and perform written notation, then the ability to sing or play music by ear could be viewed as another musical literacy, one that is essential to most Black musics. Furthermore, the structure of musical knowledge must include more than “knowledge of music theory and notation” and “the elements of music (pitch, rhythm, harmony, dynamics, timbre, texture, form, and style/articulation)” (NAfME, 2014). In the case of Black musics, we must also include timbre (as defined for BMA), mechanics of delivery, and style of delivery. Let us examine how BMA might be applied in music teaching and learning.

BMA in Music Teaching and Learning

Akuno’s (2001) model of creativity suggests one’s musical creativity reflects the interaction between culture (that which an individual absorbs directly from their environment) and information (knowledge and skills that are deliberately passed on to the individual). Gay’s (2018) model of cultural dynamics suggests there are characteristics common among those who have a strong affiliation with a racial or ethnic group. It is nearly impossible for anyone today to be influenced by only one racial or ethnic group, and music is no exception. Just as Black music has influenced music worldwide, Western European aesthetics will be observed in what we consider Black music. As such, they are appropriate for exploring Black musics to a degree, just as BMA can be used in studying music influenced by Black music. I contend the full experience of exploring Black musics eludes those who refuse to include BMA in any exploration of the music.

In the appendix (below), you will find three examples of general music lessons that center BMA in the exploration of Black musics. All lessons provided in the appendix relate to the artistic processes found in the National Standards: responding, performing, creating, and connecting. These activities may be done within one lesson or spread across a unit depending on available class time and students’ ages. Rather than choosing grade-specific standards and activities, I offer suggestions for anchor standards and related enduring understandings under the artistic processes of the National Core Music Standards. As previously articulated, the Standards are heavily rooted in Western European aesthetics; therefore, I have found it necessary to suggest revisions to the enduring understandings to center BMA adequately.

The first lesson centers on an R&B piece by Sir Wick. It is one of a set of pieces that sets a novel to music, what the composer calls a novical. The lesson addresses repetition, syncopation, polyrhythm, timbre, heterogeneous sound ideal, and body movement. The second lesson explores a gospel piece by renowned gospel artist John P. Kee, addressing repetition, timbre, heterogeneous sound ideal, and improvisation. The final lesson delves into the realm of pop music using Beyonce’s “Break My Soul.” It highlights repetition, syncopation, polyrhythm, embellishment, digital alteration of sounds, and body movement. Each exploration includes information about creators and performers and the musical works referenced. Historical, cultural, social, and political contexts are essential for understanding music (Campbell, 2018). However, the articles in this three-part series will not focus on contextualizing the pieces but on how to explore them musically with BMA. Areas of aesthetic significance are listed at the beginning of each exploration and are in bold throughout. Remember that multiple areas of aesthetic significance are not highlighted in the music below but are present and can also be explored. Subsequent articles will address BMA in music classroom activities and Afro-Brazilian musics.

Tambourine berimbau other instruments used in Afro-Brazilian music

Photo: Fred_Pinheiro – iStock / Getty Images Plus Collection

Additionally, you may choose to explore BMA across a variety of Black musics, focusing on different areas of aesthetic significance that are common among them. Smithsonian Folkways (https://folkways.si.edu/) is one site that has several options to explore Black musics, including African American Music, Blues, Caribbean, Gospel, Hip Hop, Jazz and Ragtime, Latin, Sacred, Struggle and Protest, and World. The site has recordings, detailed liner notes, some lesson plans, and more resources are set to be released in the near future.

Conclusion

Lesson ideas for exploring Black musics are plentiful. While most lessons on Black musics center either its history or “elements of music,” the lesson ideas in this article are a small example of infinite opportunities to center BMA in the study of Black musics. To be clear, lessons that address elements of music in Black musics are not invalid, for there are many influences on Black musics and multiple ways of viewing them. However, general music experiences that honor the conceptual approaches that guide the musics we share deepen our engagement with the music and our appreciation for the musicality required to create and perform such musics. These deeper understandings move us closer to a space “where all people are heard, seen, and feel they belong throughout their lifelong experiences in music” (National Association for Music Education, n.d.b).

Appendix 1

Exploration 1. Identifying BMA in “Dance Tonight.”

Song: Dance Tonight by Sir Wick https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qUiPcZHKe7s
Novical Information: https://www.sirwickmusic.com/novical
Composer Bio: https://www.sirwickmusic.com/about

Areas of aesthetic significance
Repetition, syncopation, polyrhythm, timbre, heterogeneous sound ideal, body movement

National standards
Artistic process: Responding
Anchor standard: Analyze—analyze how the structure and context of varied musical works inform the response
Enduring understanding—original: Response to music is informed by analyzing context (social, cultural, and historical) and how creators and performers manipulate the elements of music
Enduring understanding—revised: Response to music is informed by analyzing context (social, cultural, and historical) and how creators and performers manipulate structural characteristics and musical processes of musics
Artistic process: Responding
Anchor standard: Interpret—support interpretations of musical works that reflect creators’/performers’ expressive intent
Enduring understanding (original): Through their use of elements and structures of music, creators and performers express a variety of ideas
Enduring understanding (revised): Through structural characteristics and musical processes provide clues to creators’ and performers’ expressive intent

Ideas for action steps
1. A composer’s work is the product of their musical influences; both acquired from their everyday environments and formal training. Discuss the composer’s background and how it may have influenced his music
2. The composer chose to share his creative ideas in a novel plus a musical, what he calls a “novical.” What would you expect to see in a novical?
3. Eli, a music major, spends much of his time in the practice room with his saxophone. His friends convince him to take a break and join them at a party. Invite students to move subtly to “Dance Tonight” from 0 to 1:20 (body movement). This movement should allow them to listen and connect to the music in a personal way.* Students then discuss what movements they made and why. Responses might include the rhythms, the bass line, or the word “dance” being repeated.
4. Listen to the music from 0 to 33 seconds and respond to the following prompts:
a. Describe repeated rhythms (repetition and syncopation) you hear in your listening journal. You can express your thoughts in multiple formats, including written description, comparison, or some form of musical notation.
b. What musical devices did the composer use to encourage the listener to dance?
5. Students share their responses in groups of three or four, demonstrating their observations to each other through body percussion. Then, with guidance from the teacher, students perform the rhythms they observed using body percussion (polyrhythm). Once they have perfected this with body percussion, they choose instruments to perform their rhythms (timbre and heterogeneous sound ideal).
Students create their rhythm compositions, choosing rhythms and instruments for expressive purposes. Groups share these compositions with the class, who then respond with their thoughts on their purposes. Have each perform their group movements students perform all rhythms simultaneously (polyrhythm).

Rhythms

Rhythms

*Note. Body movements could include head bobbing, a slight rock, shoulder movement, or any number of body movements. The students can view examples of musicians moving to music throughout this video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0SJIgTLe0hc. I suggest bringing students’ attention to musicians’ movements between 4:30 and 5:38.

Exploration 2. Black Gospel Music through BMA.

My Mind Is Made Up by John P. Kee and the New Life Community Choir: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeJNAYh6ezc
(3:45–end)
Composer Interview: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZ2d1djqIYk
(0:00–2:30)

Areas of aesthetic significance
Repetition, timbre, heterogeneous sound ideal, improvisation (flexible relationship between time, text, and pitch)

National standards
Artistic process—Performing
Anchor standard: Analyze—analyze the structure and context of varied musical works and their implications for performance
Enduring understanding: Analyzing creators’ context and how they manipulate elements of music provides insight into their intent and informs performance
Revised enduring understanding: Analyzing creators’ context and their manipulation of structural characteristics and musical processes provides insight into their intent and informs performance

Ideas for action steps
1. Lead a guided listening of the entire song with the following prompts:
a. Write anything you notice about the song. Pay close attention to repetition in the words and music (repetition).
b. Listen closely to the voices. How many voices do you hear? How many vocal parts do you hear? Can you hear individual voices (timbre and heterogeneous sound ideal—ensemble)? Do you hear one voice make two different sounds (timbre and heterogeneous sound ideal—solo)?
2. Have individual students share their observations. Replay 3:45 to the end and discuss repetition here. Why do you feel it is important to repeat phrases in songs? Other than the words, is there anything different each time they repeat the verse (improvisation—solo)? This excerpt demonstrates how the “repetitive chorus, provides a stable foundation for the improvised lines of the soloist” (Maultsby, 2014, p. 12).
3. Replay 3:45 to the end, focusing on the one voice that brings out two different timbres. Then, discuss other voices or instruments students have heard that can produce more than timbre.
4. Invite students to experiment with timbres they can produce with their voice and body percussion in small groups. Then share with the class.
5. Discuss examples of musicians who bring out different timbres in one instrument (e.g., mute on the trumpet, Leslie speakers,1 and electric keyboards).

1 Leslie speakers are housed in a cabinet that has a rotating component which “spins” the sound. “The listener hears a complex blend of Doppler effects (including frequency and amplitude modulation), phase shifting, frequency masking, and ambient reverberation. That highly animated sound is further colored by the Leslie’s tube-driven amplifier, which often is driven to distortion” (Knave, 2001).

Exploration 3. Let’s Go Viral! BMA in Dance Pop.

Break My Soul by Beyonce https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yjki-9Pthh0
Album information: Purchase liner notes (MusicSmart)
Producer information: Beyoncé Knowles https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyoncé, C “Tricky” Stewart https://www.trickystewart.com/, Terius “The-Dream” Gesteelde-Diamant http://radiokillarecords.com/the-dream/

Areas of aesthetic significance
Repetition, syncopation, polyrhythm, embellishment, digital alteration of sounds, body movement

National standards
Creating: Imagine—Generate musical ideas for various purposes and contexts
Enduring understanding—The creative ideas, concepts, and feelings that influence musicians’ work emerge from a variety of sources

Ideas for action steps
1. Ask students to think about times they have felt challenged. How did you stay strong? What things do you say to yourself?
2. Music serves many purposes. Repetition is common in Black musics and can allow the performer to reiterate and connect deeper with the song’s emotions. Why do you think the musician (Beyoncé) might repeat the words “You won’t break my soul?”
3. Have students sing the words to the song’s hook (Lyrics: You won’t break my soul, You won’t break my soul, You won’t break my soul, You won’t break my soul, and I’m telling everybody, everybody, everybody, everybody) with the soundtrack https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7rmObRP20cg (repetition, syncopation, embellishment).
4. Musicians pull inspiration from a variety of sources. Listen to “Show Me Love” by Robin S. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ps2Jc28tQrw and describe similarities and differences between the two songs. Consider the repetition, digital alteration of sounds, syncopation, and polyrhythms
Both songs have an underlying rhythm designed to inspire the listener to dance. Have the class choose and share dance moves related to the words (body movement). If appropriate, you might video the class and share it with the school community or families, encouraging them to join in the dance.

References

Anderson W. M. (1991). Toward a multicultural future. Music Educators Journal, 77(9), 29–33.

Akuno E. A. (2001). A conceptual framework for research in music and music education within a cultural context. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 147, 3–8.

Abrahams R. (2021). Rethinking music literacy in the undergraduate theory core. Journal of Music Theory Pedagogy, 35, 81–108.

Baxter M. (2007). Global music making a difference: Themes of exploration, action and justice. Music Education Research, 9(2), 267–279.

Belz M. J. (2006). Opening the doors to diverse traditions of music making: Multicultural music education at the university level. Music Educators Journal, 92(5), 42–45.

Broomhead P. G. (2018). What is music literacy? Routledge.

Burnim M. V. (1985). The Black gospel music tradition: Symbol of ethnicity (Publication No. 303030915) [Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Campbell P. S. (1989). Music: A multicultural view of the music curriculum. Educational Leadership, 47(1), 86.

Campbell P. S. (2002). Music education in a time of cultural transformation. Music Educators Journal, 89(1), 27–54.

Campbell P. S. (2018). Music, education, and diversity: Bridging cultures and communities. Teachers College Press.

Core Music Standards: A guide to orchestrating success for students, schools, and society. (2014). National Association for Music Education.

Choksy L. (2001). Teaching music in the twenty-first century. Prentice Hall.

Damm R. J. (2006). Education through collaboration: Learning the arts while celebrating culture. Music Educators Journal, 93(2), 54–58.

Edwards K. L. (1998). Multicultural music instruction in elementary school: What can be achieved? Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 138, 62–82.

Gay G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (3rd ed.). Teachers College Press.

Kania A. (2017). The philosophy of music. In Zalta E. N. (Ed.), Stanford encycolopedia of philosophy. Stanford University.

Kania A. (2020). Philosophy of western music: A contemporary discussion. Routledge.

Knave B. (2001). The earl of whirl. Electronic Musician, 17(3), 124–124.

Mason L., Ives E. (Eds.), (1831). Juvenile Lyre: Or hymns and songs, religious, moral, and cheerful: set to appropriate music: for the use of primary and common schools. Richardson, Lord & Holbrook; H. & F. J. Huntington.

Maultsby P. K. (2014). The translated African cultural and musical past. In Burnim M. V., Maultsby P. K. (Eds.), African American music: An introduction (pp. 3–22). Routledge.

Mercer-Taylor P. (2023). Gems of exquisite beauty: How hymnody carried classical music to America. Oxford University Press.

Moore M. C., Ewell P. (2010). Kaleidoscope of cultures: A celebration of multicultural research and practice. In Proceedings of the MENC/University of Tennessee National Symposium on Multicultural Music, Knoxville, TN. Rowman & Littlefield Education.

National Association for Music Education. (n.d.a). NAfME history and leadership.

National Association for Music Education. (n.d.b). NAfME strategic plan.

National Association for Music Education. (n.d.c). Overview of national standards.

National Association for Music Education. (2014). Core music standards: A guide to orchestrating success for students, schools, and society. National Association for Music Education.

Nethsinghe R. (2012). Finding balance in a mix of culture: Appreciation of diversity through multicultural music education. International Journal of Music Education, 30(4), 382–396.

Nketia J. H. K. (1973). The study of African and Afro-American music. The Black Perspective in Music, 1(1), 7–15.

Seeger A. (1992). Celebrating the American music mosaic. Music Educators Journal, 78(9), 26–29.

Wilson O. (1992). The heterogeneous sound ideal in African-American music. In Caponi G. D. (Ed.), Signifyin(g), sanctifyin’, and slam dunking: A reader in African American expressive culture (pp. 157–171). University of Massachusetts Press.

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About the author:

Loneka Battiste PortraitNAfME member Loneka Wilkinson Battiste is Assistant Professor of Music Education at University of Houston. She is an international scholar with over 20 years of experience teaching music in school and community settings. She received a Bachelor of Arts in Education (Music Concentration) from Dillard University, a Master of Music degree in Vocal Performance from the University of Oklahoma, and a Ph. D. in Music Education from Louisiana State University. Her scholarly interests include culturally responsive teaching and Black musical aesthetics. Her work has been published in the Choral Journal, Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, Journal of General Music Education, Proceedings of the International Society for Music Education, and General Music: Dimensions of Practice.

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January 2025 Teaching Music

Published Date

January 16, 2025

Category

  • Culture
  • Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Access (DEIA)
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  • Race
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January 16, 2025. © National Association for Music Education (NAfME.org)

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